<p>History is full of wars. Why? Is war driven by fear? Greed? Revenge? Ambitious leaders? Is it rooted deep in human nature—or does it emerge only under particular social conditions? </p><p>And what do we learn if we change the angle from wars to non-wars? What lessons emerge from a study of all the periods and regions where war did not take place? </p><p>My guest in this two-part mini-series is Douglas P. Fry, an anthropologist who has spent decades studying these questions. He is also a returning guest, and one of the first scholars ever to appear on this podcast.</p><p>In Part II of our conversation, we will return to the topic of our episode from years back: the origins of war in prehistory. In this first part, however, we take a very different approach. We discuss lessons from modernity, with our topics ranging from the quest for peace after WWII to the societies in the Brazilian Amazon and Indigenous North America.</p><p>What makes former enemies trust one another? What roles are played by equality, trade, or a new shared enemy? And how can cycles of fear, retaliation, and revenge be reversed without simply surrendering to aggression?</p><p>At a time when war once again dominates the news, these questions could hardly be more urgent. But they also point towards a part of the human story that is too easily forgotten: our capacity not only to make war, but to understand it—and to build peace that lasts.</p><p>Enjoy!</p><p><br></p><p><strong>FACT-CHECKING</strong></p><p>My wording on Ukraine giving up its nuclear arsenal in exchange for &quot;security guarantees&quot; is slightly stronger than the formal language of the Budapest Memorandum, which talked of “security assurances” rather than legally binding security guarantees.</p><p>If you notice a factual error in this conversation, please get in touch via Substack or the form below.</p><p><br></p><p> <strong>LINKS</strong></p><p>Fry&#39;s 2026 book: <a href="https://www.e-elgar.com/shop/gbp/advanced-introduction-to-conflict-resolution-9781035323906.html?srsltid=AfmBOop4R1nmBFiTFWqhstP-Y61-Lur2z-hMudw6z4X5e86_AN5CrcOq" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferer"><em>Advanced Introduction to Conflict Resolution</em></a></p><p>Support: <a href="Patreon.com/OnHumans" target="_blank" rel="ugc noopener noreferrer">⁠Patreon.com/OnHumans⁠</a></p><p>Articles &amp; newsletter: <a href="OnHumans.Substack.com" target="_blank" rel="ugc noopener noreferrer">⁠OnHumans.Substack.com⁠</a></p><p>Get in touch: <a href="https://forms.gle/h5wcmefuwvD6asos8" target="_blank" rel="ugc noopener noreferrer">⁠https://forms.gle/h5wcmefuwvD6asos8⁠</a></p><p>Music credit: Aleksey Chistilin (Lexin_Music) via Pixabay.</p><p><br></p><p><strong>NAMES MENTIONED</strong></p><p>Douglas P. Fry | Geneviève Souillac | Jean Monnet | Konrad Adenauer | Mahatma Gandhi | Edward Westermarck | Charles E. Osgood | Brian Ferguson | Eleanor Roosevelt | Vladimir Putin </p><p><br></p><p><strong>KEY WORDS</strong></p><p>Douglas P. Fry | peace studies | conflict studies | war studies | peace and conflict studies | anthropology of war | anthropology of peace | war and peace | causes of war | origins of war | human nature and war | peacebuilding | conflict resolution | peace systems | lasting peace | international cooperation | nonviolence | revenge | reciprocity | negative reciprocity | deterrence | security dilemma | arms race | nuclear weapons | nuclear disarmament | Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons | TPNW | Budapest Memorandum | United Nations | UN peacekeeping | Blue Helmets | UN Security Council | international law | global governance | World War II | Second World War | post-war peace | European integration | Jean Monnet | European Coal and Steel Community | Switzerland | Nordic peace | Åland Islands dispute | League of Nations | Upper Xingu peace system | Indigenous peace systems | Haudenosaunee Confederacy | Iroquois Confederacy | Great League of Peace | GRIT strategy | Graduated Reciprocation in Tension Reduction | Charles E. Osgood | Edward Westermarck | Ukraine war | Russia–Ukraine war</p>