How do neurons convert electrical signals into chemical messages in under a millisecond?In this episode, we speak with Thomas Südhof, Stanford neuroscientist and Nobel laureate whose discoveries revealed the molecular machinery that allows neurons to communicate at synapses. Südhof explains how an electrical impulse traveling down a neuron triggers the rapid release of neurotransmitters, transforming an electrical signal into a chemical one that can be received by the next cell.We explore the remarkable precision of synaptic transmission, including how calcium ions trigger vesicle fusion, how specialized proteins organize the release machinery, and why this entire process unfolds on the timescale of a single millisecond. Südhof walks us through the molecular components that make this possible, including the proteins that dock neurotransmitter-filled vesicles and control their release.The conversation also examines how these discoveries reshaped modern neuroscience by revealing the fundamental mechanisms underlying neuronal communication. Südhof discusses how synapses operate as highly specialized molecular machines and how disruptions in synaptic signaling are linked to neurological and psychiatric disorders.Whether you’re interested in neuroscience, synapses, brain signaling, neurotransmitters, or the molecular basis of thought, this episode offers a clear explanation of how neurons translate electricity into chemistry, and how this microscopic process makes brain communication possibleFollow us for more technical interviews with the world’s greatest scientists:Twitter: https://x.com/632nmPodcastInstagram: https://www.instagram.com/632nmpodcast?utm_source=ig_web_button_share_sheet&igsh=ZDNlZDc0MzIxNw==LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/632nm/about/Substack: https://632nmpodcast.substack.com/Follow our hosts!Mikhail Shalaginov: https://x.com/MYShalaginovMichael Dubrovsky: https://x.com/MikeDubrovskyXinghui Yin: https://x.com/XinghuiYinSubscribe:Apple Podcasts: https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/632nm/id1751170269Spotify: https://open.spotify.com/show/4aVH9vT5qp5UUUvQ6Uf6ORWebsite: [https://www.632nm.com](https://www.632nm.com/)Timestamps:00:00 - Intro01:23 - What is a Synapse?07:01 - History of Synapse Discovery12:54 - How Electron Microscopy Helped Neuroscience15:11 - Early Electrophysiological Experiments18:31 - Why are Neurotransmitters Needed At All?21:25 - Electrical Connections Between Cells22:48 - How Signal Diversity is Created in Synapses29:04 - Why are Synapses Chemical?31:06 - How Tom Began his Neuroscience Career39:32 - Emerging Tools that Allowed for Researching Synapses44:16 - Discerning Protein Function49:36 - Discovering Mechanism through Data52:15 - Isolating Membrane Proteins55:09 - Voltage Gates57:50 - How Synapses Change Over Time1:02:14 - How are Synapses Formed?1:10:22 - The Need for New Tools1:11:53 - Implications for Drug Discovery1:17:07 - Exploring the Mouse Hippocampus1:22:35 - Tom’s Work on LDL Receptors1:26:33 - Understanding Molecular Logic#neuroscience #neuroplasticity #nobelprize #hubermanlab #neurobiology